To understand what we mean by Artificial Intelligence, we first have to look at the concept of Human Intelligence.

There are many definitions of Intelligence, but most arrive at similar statements in that:

Human intelligence is a mental quality that consists of the abilities to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, understand and handle abstract concepts, and use knowledge to manipulate one’s environment.

Throughout history, different researchers have emphasised different aspects of intelligence in their definitions.

In a 1921 symposium the American psychologists Lewis Terman and Edward L. Thorndike differed over the definition of intelligence with Terman stressing the ability to think abstractly and Thorndike emphasising learning and the ability to give good responses to questions.

In more recent times, psychologists have generally agreed that adaptation to the environment is the key to understanding both what intelligence is and what it does.

Adaptation may occur in a various ways – For example a school student learns the information they need to know in order to pass an exam – If they fail the exam, they re-assess why they failed and adapt their learning mechanism to achieve a better score next time – They adapt their learning.

Effective adaptation draws upon a number of cognitive processes, such as perception, learning, memory, reasoning, and problem solving.

Thus, the main emphasis in a definition of intelligence, is that it is not a single cognitive or mental process but rather a selective combination of these processes that is purposely directed toward effective adaptation.

Measuring Intelligence

The theory of intelligence has evolved through a succession of models. There are four key disciplines in this space:

  • Psychological testing (A.K.A. psychometrics)
  • Cognitive Psychology
  • Cognitivism & Contextualism
  • Biological Science

Psychological testing refers to the systematic use of tests to quantify psychophysical behaviour, abilities, and problems, and to make predictions about psychological performance. The term “test” refers to any means, often formally contrived, used to elicit responses to which human behaviour in other contexts can be related.

Psychological testing is designed to help psychologists measure and observe a patient’s behavior to arrive at a diagnosis and guide treatment. For example, if a child is having trouble in school, they may undergo aptitude testing or tests for learning disabilities. Whereas tests for skills such as dexterity, reaction time, and memory can help a neuropsychologist diagnose conditions such as brain injuries or dementia.

Psychological tests and assessments are two separate but related components of a psychological evaluation. Testing involves the use of formal tests such as questionnaires or checklists. These tests have been standardised so that test-takers are evaluated in a similar way, no matter where they live or who administers the test.

Cognitive psychology focuses on the inner workings of the human mind. It seeks to understand how people process, solve problems, and make decisions in their everyday life. It is the scientific study of mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and reasoning

The cognitive perspective in psychology focuses on how the interactions of thinking, emotion, creativity, and problem-solving abilities affect how and why you think the way you do.

Cognitivism is a theoretical framework in psychology that gained prominence in the 1950s as a response to behaviorism, which cognitivists argued neglected to explain cognition. It focuses on different mental processes, including how people perceive, think, remember, learn, solve problems, and direct their attention³. Cognitivists believe that the way people think impacts their behavior and therefore cannot be a behavior in and of itself.

Contextualism (A.K.A. epistemic contextualism) is a family of views in philosophy which emphasises the context in which an action, utterance, or expression occurs.

Biological science in the context of intelligence refers to the study of how biological factors, such as genetics and brain function, contribute to intelligence. This field seeks to understand intelligence by directly studying the brain and its functioning rather than by studying primarily products or processes of behavior.

Biological approaches to intelligence often involve studying the brain’s structure and function, and how these relate to cognitive abilities. For example, researchers might examine how different areas of the brain are activated during problem-solving tasks, or how genetic variations might be associated with differences in cognitive abilities.

It’s important to note that while biological factors can influence intelligence, they do not determine it entirely. Environmental factors, such as access to educational opportunities and nutrition, also play a crucial role. A child may be born with genes for brightness, but if that child grows up in a deprived environment where he is malnourished and lacks access to educational opportunities, he may not score well on measures of IQ.

Identifying Intelligence

One of the earliest of the psychometric theories came from the British psychologist Charles Edward. Spearman (1863–1945), who published his first major article on intelligence in 1904.

Charles E. Spearman

Spearman devised factor analysis, a statistical technique that examines patterns of individual differences in test scores and he concluded that just two kinds of factors underlie all individual differences in scores.

The first factor, which he labeled the “general factor,” or g, exists in all tasks requiring intelligence.

The second factor is specifically related to each particular test – So, for example, when someone takes a test of arithmetical reasoning, their performance on the test requires g, but also a specific factor that is related to whatever mental operations are required for mathematical reasoning as opposed to other kinds of thinking.

Spearman did not know exactly what the g was, but in 1927, he proposed that it might be something like “mental energy.”

The American psychologist Louis Leon Thurstone disagreed with Spearman’s theory and suggested that there were more than 2 aspects to intelligence.

L.L. Thurlstone

Thurlston argued instead that there were seven factors:

  • Verbal comprehension – The knowledge of vocabulary and in reading
  • Verbal fluency – writing and in producing words
  • Number – solving fairly simple numerical computation and arithmetical reasoning problems
  • Spatial visualisation – visualising and manipulating objects
  • Inductive reasoning – completing a number series or predicting the future on the basis of past experience
  • Memory – recalling people’s names or faces, etc.
  • Perceptual speed – E.G. rapid proofreading to discover typographical errors in a text

Most psychologists now agree that Spearman’s subdivision of abilities is too narrow. The American psychologist Joy Paul Guilford proposed a structure-of-intellect theory, which suggests that there are 120 abilities.

Joy Paul Guilford

In The Nature of Human Intelligence (1967), Guilford argued that abilities can be divided into five kinds of operation, four kinds of content, and six kinds of product. These facets can be variously combined to form 120 separate abilities.

IQ & EQ

Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is a score derived from one of several standardised tests designed to assess an individual’s intelligence. IQ tests measure abilities such as the use of logic to solve problems, planning and strategising, understanding abstract ideas, learning, adapting to change, and grasping and using language.

The most commonly used IQ tests include the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, the Woodcock Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, and the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test.

The Stanford-Binet test is a cognitive-ability and intelligence test that is used to diagnose developmental or intellectual deficiencies in young children. The test measures five weighted factors and consists of both verbal and nonverbal subtests. The five factors being tested are knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, and fluid reasoning.

The Woodcock Johnson III tests of Cognitive Abilities consist of 2 batteries of tests – The standard battery and the extended battery. The standard battery has 10 tests, and the extended battery has 20 tests

The tests examines nine abilities: Comprehension-Knowledge, Short-Term Memory, Long-Term Memory, Visual-Spatial Thinking, Auditory Processing, Fluid Reasoning, Processing Speed, Quantitative Knowledge and Reading-Writing.

The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is an IQ test designed to measure intelligence and cognitive ability in adults and older adolescents. WAIS-IV is the most widely used IQ test in the world.

WAIS-IV is composed of ten core subtests and five supplemental subtests:

  • Core Subtests
    • Similarities
    • Vocabulary
    • Information
    • Block Design
    • Matrix Reasoning
    • Visual Puzzles
    • Digit Span
    • Arithmetic
    • Symbol Search
    • Coding
  • Supplemental subtests
    • Comprehension
    • Figure Weights
    • Picture Completion
    • Letter-Number Sequencing
    • Cancellation

The Wechsler Individual Achievement Test Second Edition (WIAT-II) assesses the academic achievement of children, adolescents, college students and adults, aged 4 through 85. The test enables the assessment of a broad range of academics skills or only a particular area of need.

There are four basic scales: Reading, Math, Writing and Oral Language. Within these scales there are 9 sub-tests:

  • Reading
    • Word Reading
    • Reading Comprehension
    • Pseudoword (phonetic) Decoding
  • Maths
    • Numerical Operations
    • Math Reasoning
  • Writing
    • Spelling
    • Written Expression
  • Oral Language
    • Listening Comprehension
    • Oral Expression

Emotional Quotient (EQ), also known as Emotional Intelligence (EI), refers to an individual’s ability to identify, evaluate, control, and express emotions. People with high EQ usually make great leaders and team players because of their ability to understand, empathize, and connect with the people around them. EQ generally refers to your ability to sense emotion in yourself and in other people, and how you use that awareness to adjust your behavior.

If you have a high EQ, you may find it easier to identify emotions in yourself and others, empathise with other people, adapt your feelings and behavior to different situations, control your impulses, withstand temptations and delay gratification, resolve conflicts with others, and communicate effectively.

While both IQ and EQ are measures of human intelligence, they focus on different aspects. IQ tests measure cognitive abilities, while EQ tests measure emotional and social skills. Together, they provide a fuller picture of an individual’s capabilities. However, there’s a lot of debate about the accuracy of IQ and EQ measurements, as many factors can influence outcomes on tests. Tiredness, nutrition, and stress are just some factors that affect how a person performs in such tests.

Emotional intelligence has been defined, by Peter Salovey and John Mayer, as “the ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior”.

Peter Salovey & John Mayer

This definition was later broken down and refined into four proposed abilities: perceiving, using, understanding, and managing emotions

Currently, there are three main models of EI:

  • Ability model
  • Mixed model
  • Trait model

Ability Model

The Ability Model discusses the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions, to enhance thinking. It includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth.

The model claims that EI includes four types of abilities:

  • Perceiving emotions – the ability to detect and decipher emotions in faces, pictures, voices, and cultural artifacts—including the ability to identify one’s own emotions. Perceiving emotions is a basic aspect of emotional intelligence, as it makes all other processing of emotional information possible.
  • Using emotions – the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem-solving. The emotionally intelligent person can capitalize fully upon his or her changing moods in order to best fit the task at hand.
  • Understanding emotions – the ability to comprehend emotion language and to appreciate complicated relationships among emotions. For example, understanding emotions encompasses the ability to be sensitive to slight variations between emotions, and the ability to recognize and describe how emotions evolve over time.
  • Managing emotions – the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others. The emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negative ones, and manage them to achieve intended goals.

Mixed Model

The mixed model focuses on EI as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive leadership performance. Goleman’s model outlines five main EI constructs:

  • Self-awareness – the ability to know one’s emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values, and goals and recognize their impact on others while using gut feelings to guide decisions
  • Self-regulation – involves controlling or redirecting one’s disruptive emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances
  • Social skill – managing relationships to get along with others
  • Empathy – considering other people’s feelings especially when making decisions
  • Motivation – being aware of what motivates them

Trait Model

The full title for the Trait model is The Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue). This model conceptualizes EI in terms of personality. There are five descriptive sections that describe a personality:

  • Openness
  • Concientiousness
  • Extraversion
  • Agreeableness
  • Neuroticism

Within these five categories, the test encompasses fifteen subscales organised under four factors: 

  • Well-being
  • Self-control
  • Emotionality
  • Sociability

The fifteen subscales are:

  • Adaptability
  • Assertiveness
  • Perception of Emotions (self & others)
  • Impulsiveness
  • Emotion Regulation
  • Management of others emotion
  • Expression of emotion
  • Relationships
  • Self-Esteem
  • Self-motivation
  • Social Awareness
  • Optimism Trait
  • Happiness Trait
  • Empathy Trait
  • Stress Management

In my next post, I will look at how we learn